In this blog post, we will summarize the lives and core philosophies of Plato and Socrates, and examine the main content and significance of the ‘Apology’, Socrates’ defense speech in court as recounted by Plato.

Plato

Plato was an ancient Greek philosopher born around 427 BC and died in 347 BC. He is regarded as the founder of objective idealism and was a student of Socrates. Born into an aristocratic family, he opened a school at the Academy on the outskirts of Athens around the age of 40 and devoted himself to education, leaving behind more than 30 dialogues.
His philosophy was influenced by Pythagoras, Parmenides, and Heraclitus, and stood in opposition to the ideas of Democritus, a materialist of his time. He proposed the famous Theory of Forms, in which Forms (or eidos, meaning “form”) are defined as immaterial, eternal, and transcendent absolute realities.
In contrast, he advanced a dualistic worldview in which material and sensory existence is provisional and relative, and the world of empirical objects that appeals to the senses is merely a shadow and an image of the Ideas. He viewed the World Soul as the center of the universe and believed that the human soul originally resided in the realm of Ideas governed by the World Soul; he held that this soul is immortal and that true knowledge is attained through recollection of the Ideas.
Sensory knowledge is nothing more than mere “opinion” (doxa), while true knowledge is that which is recalled through intellectual intuition by the soul. Between these two lies the knowledge of mathematical objects, which constitutes rational knowledge. Plato discussed dialectic in relation to conceptual knowledge, stating that thought unfolds through an ascent—a process of gradually ascending to more general concepts until reaching the most general—and a descent—a process of descending from those developed concepts back to lower levels.
Therefore, the greatest joy for humans lies in the soul, which temporarily resides in the body, recognizing the realm of the Forms, and the philosopher plays the role of bringing the real world as close as possible to this ideal. Representing the Athenian aristocracy, Plato envisioned an ideal aristocratic state and proposed rule by philosophers, imagining a hierarchical structure in which soldiers and merchants were placed below them. This corresponds to his view of human nature, which divides the soul into rational, spirited, and appetitive elements.
Plato’s philosophy exerted a powerful influence on the subsequent tradition of idealism.

Socrates

Socrates was an ancient Greek philosopher born around 469 BC and died in 399 BC. Along with Plato and Aristotle, he is regarded as one of the figures who ushered in the golden age of ancient Greek philosophy. Early sources providing insight into Socrates’ life rely primarily on the writings of his disciples, Plato and Xenophon.
According to Plato’s dialogue ‘Theaetetus’, Socrates was born in Athens around 469 BC to Sophroniscus, a sculptor, and Phaenarete, a midwife. It is said that as he devoted himself to philosophical discussions and wandered through the public square dressed in shabby clothes, disciples from various social classes gathered around him. Furthermore, unlike the Sophists, he did not accept payment for his teachings.
Physically, he was short and rough-hewn in appearance, but he was physically fit and highly patient; with a calm disposition, he enjoyed contemplation and lived a life unconcerned with wealth. He married Xanthippe and had three children, and Xenophon’s ‘Memorabilia’ recounts anecdotes related to his family life.
In his later years, Socrates became embroiled in political affairs. Following the Peloponnesian War, tensions between the democrats and the aristocrats in Athens intensified. Although Socrates did not participate directly in practical politics, his theories were perceived as critical of democracy, and because many of his disciples and friends sided with the aristocrats, he was viewed as a threat by the democrats.
Ultimately, Socrates was charged with not believing in the gods and corrupting the youth, and was sentenced to death. In his dialogue ‘Phaedo’, Plato describes in detail the scene in which his teacher Socrates drinks the poison and faces death with composure.

Characteristics and Significance of Socrates’ Philosophical Thought

Socrates’ ideas hold such significance in the history of philosophy that ancient Greek philosophy is often divided into pre-Socratic and post-Socratic periods. Since he left no written works of his own, it is difficult to grasp his unique ideas precisely; they can only be inferred indirectly through the records of his disciples. His philosophy can generally be summarized by the following four characteristics.
First, he placed great importance on the act of asking questions itself. In discussions with various people, he enjoyed the practice of posing counter-questions to his interlocutors. He would ask them about the meanings of concepts such as justice, piety, prudence, recklessness, and friendship, guiding them to continually seek answers through this process. While the pursuit of knowledge through the Socratic method existed even before Socrates, he actively employed and developed it.
Second, he sought to become aware of his own ignorance. The maxim “Know thyself (gnothi seauton)” became widely known through Socrates. Although the Delphic Oracle declared Socrates to be the wisest man, he confessed that he “knew nothing,” emphasizing the recognition of human ignorance and inner inquiry.
Third, his philosophy had a strong ethical character. Socrates valued moderation and centered his philosophy on “the Good,” frequently posing questions about virtue even in his debates. Furthermore, he viewed knowledge as synonymous with virtue, arguing that one can act rightly only after acquiring true knowledge. This emphasis on a moral and ascetic way of life is sometimes regarded as a precursor to the later Stoic school.
Fourth, his philosophy left room for political interpretation. Concepts such as “rule by the wise,” “criticism of flowery rhetoric,” “awareness of one’s own ignorance,” and “the unity of virtue and knowledge” were perceived as threats to the Athenian democracy. Plato would later develop these ideas to advocate for an ideal form of philosopher-king rule. While some scholars believe that Socrates’ abstract questions (regarding beauty, the good, etc.) influenced Plato’s theory of Forms, the causal relationship between the two schools of thought remains a matter of debate.

Socrates’ Apology

The ‘Apology’ is a philosophical work written by Plato that deals with Socrates’ defense in court following his indictment by Meletus in 399 BC on charges of not believing in the gods and corrupting the youth. This defense is composed of three parts: the initial defense, the defense following the guilty verdict, and the defense following the death sentence.
Socrates’ defense, as reconstructed by Plato, is regarded not only as a demonstration of his philosophical essence but also as a crucial source for understanding the relationship between the indictment, the verdict, and the execution. Stylistically, it is considered the crowning achievement among Plato’s works and is regarded as a jewel of ancient Greek prose literature.
In the structure of the book, Socrates first points out that there are two types of accusers. The accusers from the past are an unspecified group who slander Socrates, claiming that he pursues things in the heavens and the underworld, clings to flimsy logic, and teaches these things to others. The new accuser is Meletus, a member of the Anytus faction, who accuses Socrates of corrupting the youth and failing to acknowledge the gods of the state.
Socrates refutes the earlier accusers by stating that he has never studied fanciful natural philosophy, nor has he taught for high fees like other sophists. Citing the incident with the Delphic oracle, he explains that his “awareness of ignorance” is an act of following the will of the gods. Regarding Meletus, he first points out Meletus’s ignorance and contradictions through dialogue, and then states his convictions. He says, “I would rather obey the gods than you. That is to say, as long as I live, I will never cease to love and pursue knowledge.”
Nevertheless, the jury finds him guilty by a narrow margin, and during the sentencing phase, Socrates argues that he should instead be honored by the state for his service. Ultimately, he is sentenced to death. In Part III, he prophesies to those who voted for his conviction that punishment will befall them after his death, while to those who voted for his acquittal, he urges them to reflect on their lives and conveys his conviction regarding the meaning of death: “For good people, there is nothing evil, either in life or in death.”
This dialogue depicts Socrates’ fierce and devout philosophical spirit, reminding us that the harmony between life and spirit is the essence of philosophy.