In this blog post, I’ll briefly summarize how the origins and structure of the Prose Edda, combined with skaldic poetry and the historical context of Snorri’s time, worked together to preserve and pass down Germanic mythology.
What is the Prose Edda?
This book, commonly translated as ‘The Prose Edda’, was written by the medieval Icelandic scholar and poet Snorri Sturluson (1179–1241). It is a prose compilation of Germanic mythology and the poetic techniques based on it. Prior to the modern era, it was simply referred to as the “Edda,” but a distinction emerged after collections of Germanic myths written in verse were discovered in an Icelandic church in 1643.
The discovered collections of myths in verse came to be known as the “Poetic Edda” or the “Old Edda,” while this prose work by Snorri was distinguished as the “Prose Edda,” “Snorri’s Edda,” or the “New Edda.” Together, the two Eddas constitute a cultural heritage widely recognized worldwide as primary sources of Norse mythology.
Although the exact origin of the name “Edda” remains unclear, four main theories are discussed: First, the theory that it derives from the Old Norse root “óðr”—meaning “poetry”—which aligns with the book’s nature as a treatise on poetry for skalds. Second, it is argued that the name is related to “Oddi,” the cultural center in Iceland where Snorri pursued his studies. Third, there is a theory that it derives from an Old Icelandic word meaning “great-grandmother,” which is seen as conveying the meaning of “progenitor” or “ancestor” in the context of mythological narratives. Fourth, there is an interpretation linking the etymology to the Latin verb “edo” (I inform or speak).
Snorri Sturluson and His Era
Snorri Sturluson was a prominent Icelandic politician, scholar, and writer. “Sturluson” is the Middle Norwegian spelling; when transcribed according to modern Icelandic pronunciation, it is closer to “Sturlússon.” This is not so much a surname as a patrilineal designation meaning “son of Sturla,” and since Icelanders typically list the given name first, people usually refer to him simply as “Snorri.”
Snorri came from a prominent Icelandic family; he received a medieval European-style education in Odda and married the daughter of a wealthy family, thereby establishing his political standing at an early age. He twice held the important position of “Lögsögumaður” (Law Speaker) in the Icelandic parliament, the Alþing, and while residing in the Kingdom of Norway, he cultivated friendships with the powerful figures of the time. Among them were the young King Hákon Hákonarson (1204–1263) and Duke Skúli, who was serving as regent at the time.
Iceland had maintained a peaceful republican system for about 200 years since the late 9th century, but it faced political upheaval in the 13th century.
Norway revealed its ambition to annex the island nation of Iceland, and internally, power struggles and Viking raids continued. Amid this turmoil, Snorri became a target due to his political activities; after Duke Skúli was removed by King Hákon, Snorri was ultimately attacked in 1241 by forces acting on Hákon’s orders and was murdered at his estate in Laxhólth.
Although his political life ended in tragedy, Snorri gained greater fame for posterity as a scholar, historian, and writer than as a politician. His works became vital sources for transmitting Germanic mythology, the history of the Norwegian royal dynasty, and the skaldic poetic tradition to future generations.
‘Heimskringla’ (“The Circle of the World”) (1222–1235) is a monumental work that compiles the legends and history of the Norwegian royal dynasty—from the mythological era up to the period immediately preceding Snorri’s own lifetime—in the form of sagas. The introduction to this book presents a perspective similar to the prologue of the Prose Edda and contains Snorri’s unique interpretation that gods such as Odin were deified historical figures who came from the East and settled in Northern Europe.
“Ólafs saga helga” (“The Saga of Saint Olaf”) belongs to the tradition of prose biographical texts about the Norwegian saint king Olaf, who died in 1030.
“Egils saga Skallagrímssonar” is one of the extensive Icelandic sagas and recounts the life of Egil, a famous skald (poet) whom Snorri considered his ancestor.
Snorri was involved not only in prose works but also in writing poetry himself, though many of his works have been lost. The poems of his that survive today are mainly those included in the “List of Poetic Meters” in the Prose Edda, with odes praising King Håkon of Norway and the nobleman Skuli being the most representative examples.
Structure and Literary Character of the Edda
The Prose Edda is broadly divided into four parts: the “Prologue,” “Gylfaginning,” “The Art of Poetic Composition,” and “The List of Poetic Meters.” While there is debate over whether Snorri himself wrote the “Prologue,” this text serves to situate the entire book within a medieval Christian worldview and to explain Norse traditions in a manner consistent with the intellectual climate of the time.
The “Prologue” presents a Christian interpretation of why people created myths and gods, and by arguing that the Norse people and language originated from Southern European civilizations such as Troy, it emphasizes the intellectual insights of medieval Europeans and the connection between the Nordic region and the roots of European civilization.
‘Gylfaginning’ introduces the text of Germanic mythology, covering everything from Genesis to the End of Days, but it is presented not as a direct narrative but in a question-and-answer format. The work follows a structure in which a regional Swedish king named Guðfríð engages in dialogue with three beings—‘Hár’ (the High One), ‘Jafn-Hár’ (the Equally High One), and ‘Trídi’ (the Third High One)—asking questions about various episodes in the myths and receiving answers.
In “The Art of Scaldic Poetry,” Germanic mythology is presented as a textbook on poetics for skalds (Norse bards). Here, after introducing episodes from the myths, the text provides examples of poems created by transforming them into traditional figurative language known as kenning. A kenning is a poetic device—such as referring to gold as “the otter’s ransom” or metaphorically describing it as “Freya’s tears”—that presupposes an audience familiar with the relevant myths and traditions.
In the section on skaldic poetry composition, various mythological episodes and their corresponding figurative expressions are introduced through a dialogue between Bragi (the god of poetry and the name of the greatest medieval Norse skald) and Ægir (the god of the sea who frequently hosted the gods). Myths not covered in this section are addressed in other poetic examples and explanations.
The “Catalog of Poetic Meters” is a section that systematizes the meters and forms of skaldic poetry, featuring poems written by Snorri himself as examples. These poems are primarily odes praising King Håkon and Skulli, with whom he had formed close ties in Norway.
The Prose Edda can essentially be viewed as a treatise on poetics for skalds. Skaldic literature was a form of court poetry that flourished in Northern Europe from the 9th to the 12th century; it primarily consisted of praise for the virtues of kings and nobles and was characterized by a verse form featuring traditional alliteration and internal rhyme, as well as the figurative device known as the kenning.
This skaldic tradition began to show signs of decline after the 13th century, and the prose sagas came to take its place. Snorri likely felt the need to preserve and teach the waning skaldic tradition. In this context, the Prose Edda served to systematize traditional poetic literature and provide linguistic and cultural resources to future poets and readers.
The Status and Transmission of Germanic Mythology
Germanic mythology is so outstanding in terms of scale and structure that it is often referred to, alongside Greek mythology, as one of the two major mythologies of Europe. Since Germanic mythology arose from the thoughts and emotions of the Germanic peoples and formed the foundation of their beliefs, understanding it requires an examination of its creators—the Germanic peoples.
The term “Germanic peoples” refers to the ethnic groups of Central and Northern Europe, encompassing present-day Germany, the United Kingdom, Austria, Switzerland, the Netherlands, Denmark, Sweden, Norway, and Iceland. If we include the United States—which was founded by Germanic settlers—the Germanic cultural sphere has exerted a significant influence on all aspects of Western politics, economics, society, and culture. Therefore, the Germanic peoples and their myths also serve as an important foundation for Western culture and history. For this reason, this blog post uses the term “Germanic mythology” rather than “Norse mythology.”
In addition to the Prose Edda, sources that convey Germanic mythology include the Poetic Edda, ‘Beowulf’, ‘The History of the Danes’ by Saxo Grammaticus, the medieval epic ‘The Song of the Nibelungs’, and the Norse sagas. The Poetic Edda, a collection of poems by various anonymous authors, has already been translated and introduced, while ‘Beowulf’ and ‘The Song of the Nibelungs’ are medieval heroic epics from England and Germany, respectively, and hold great significance in literary history.
However, since ‘Beowulf’ and ‘The Song of the Nibelungs’ use mythological heroes as their setting rather than directly addressing the stories of the gods, it is difficult to regard them as authentic sources of Germanic mythology. Saxo’s work has the limitation of reconstructing the gods from a Christian perspective in a humanized or critical manner; thus, its intrinsic value as a mythological source is inferior to that of the Poetic and Prose Eddas.
Although the Germanic peoples used their own unique script, known as runes, it was limited to serving as talismans or inscriptions on shields and swords and was not suitable for recording lengthy literary works. It was not until the spread of the alphabet that systematic recording began in earnest, but this period largely coincided with the spread of Christianity. Christianity tended to treat pagan mythological tales as taboo, and in some cases, these myths were eradicated by “pious” forces following extensive collection efforts.
Consequently, in most parts of Europe, Germanic mythology was not preserved in written form. Although there were many mythological artifacts made of wood, they did not survive for long, and as the oral tradition bearers passed away, many myths were lost. Only Iceland, situated geographically far to the northwest and having adopted Christianity in a relatively peaceful manner through a parliamentary resolution around the year 1000, was able to record its myths in verse and prose throughout the 10th to 13th centuries. It is precisely thanks to this unique historical situation in Iceland that we are able to know Germanic mythology today.
Meanwhile, it is only relatively recently that Germanic mythology has become widely known worldwide. Initially, it was known in part through epic poems such as ‘Beowulf’ and ‘The Nibelungenlied’, but it did not begin to receive serious attention as a body of stories about the gods until the Romantic period of the 19th century. Romantics took a keen interest in the origins of their nations and in folklore, actively collecting and rediscovering myths and folktales.
In the realm of culture and the arts, the widespread popularization of Germanic mythology was largely influenced by Wagner’s four-part opera cycle, ‘The Ring of the Nibelung’. In the 20th century, its spread exploded with the development of media such as films, fantasy novels, and video games. Wagner’s work served as a stepping stone for the reception of 20th-century cultural content, paving the way for fantasy literature such as Tolkien’s ‘The Lord of the Rings’ and countless films, anime, and video games.
This book can serve as an important reference not only for research on Korean mythology and literature but also for the cultural content industry, including video games, films, anime, and comics. The translator recommends that readers consult this book alongside the ‘Edda’ to gain a more comprehensive overview of Germanic mythology.
The Worldview of Germanic Mythology
As with most mythologies, Germanic mythology is based on a structure that divides the world into three layers: the sky, the earth, and the underworld. The gods dwell in the heavens, various living beings—including humans—exist on the earth, and the dead reside in the underworld. This structure can be seen as a universal product of the human mind recognizing and archetypalizing the natural order.
However, Germanic mythology goes a step further by subdividing the world into nine realms, and it is characterized by a much greater diversity of races active within them compared to other mythologies. In other words, it is characterized by a multi-layered world structure and a pluralistic composition of races.
The deities are broadly divided into two groups: the Aesir and the Vanir. In the plural, the Aesir are called the Aesir, and the Vanir are called the Vanir. The warrior class worshipped the Aesir, while those who primarily led an agricultural lifestyle worshipped the Vanir. The Vanir include gods such as Njörðr, Freyr, and Freyja, while the Aesir, centered around Odin, include many gods such as Thor, Tyr, Heimdall, Balder, Frigg, and Idun.
Mythology tells of a war between the two groups of gods at the beginning of time; as the battle continued and the damage grew, they eventually signed a peace treaty and exchanged hostages to ensure its enforcement. Since then, there are almost no accounts of the Vanir acting independently; instead, stories describe the Vanir gods coming to Asgard—the domain of the Aesir—to carry out their activities, leading scholars to interpret this as the Vanir having gradually been assimilated into the Aesir.
In the celestial realm, besides these two divine clans, there are also transcendent beings such as the elves. The elves reside in Alfheim and are depicted as supernatural beings of a lower rank than the gods. On Earth, creatures such as humans, giants, and dwarves live. Humans are said to have been created from wood by Odin and his brothers; the giants are said to have descended from the primordial giant Ymir; and the dwarves are said to have emerged from maggots that formed in Ymir’s corpse.
Humans live in Midgard, the giants in Jötunheim, and the dwarves in caves or crevices in the rocks, such as Nidavellir (or Nidavellir), which means “dark hall.” Beneath the earth, there are also beings called “black little elves,” who live in Svartalfheim. Since it is difficult to clearly distinguish between dwarves and svartalves, the two regions are sometimes considered synonymous.
The realms of the dead are referred to by names such as Hel, Niflhel, and Niflheim. While some traditions distinguish between them—stating that those with grave sins pass through Hel on their way to Niflhel—other traditions and scholarly studies view them as variations or emphatic forms of the same place. Generally, those who die of illness or old age go to these underworlds, but those who die valiantly in battle ascend to Odin’s hall, Valhalla, where they become Einherjar, training in combat by day and feasting by night.
The rainbow bridge Bifrost connects Asgard and Midgard, and all these worlds are interconnected and sustained by the great World Tree, Yggdrasil.
Niflheim in the north and Muspelheim in the south are contrasting realms; a creation myth tells that the flames of Muspelheim and the ice of Niflheim mingled to give birth to Ymir, the primordial giant, and the cow Audhumla.
Beneath the roots of Yggdrasil lie springs such as Urd’s Well, Mimir’s Well, and Hvergelmir, from which the World Tree draws its vitality. This vast cosmology and robust mythological framework elevate Germanic mythology to a global-scale narrative, offering a story that spans from the beginning of time to the end of the world.
The Protagonists of Germanic Mythology
Although Germanic mythology features countless gods, giants, and dwarves, the deities most widely worshiped by humans throughout history were Odin, Thor, and Frey. Records indicate that people offered sacrifices to these gods, made wishes, and presented actual offerings—and in some cases, even sacrificed humans.
Odin, as the chief god, was called the “Father of All Things” and was particularly revered by warriors. Thor, the god of thunder and lightning, was primarily trusted and worshiped by farmers, while Frey, the god who presided over abundance and prosperity, was the deity of those who sought plenty. However, from the perspective of tradition, the three figures who most frequently appear as protagonists in the stories are Odin, Thor, and Loki. The exploits of these three occupy a significant portion of Germanic mythology.
Among the goddesses, Frigg and Freyja are the most famous. Frigg, as Odin’s wife, presides over marriage, childbirth, and the household, and is closely associated with the major concerns of women’s lives. Freyja is the goddess of beauty and love, and she is the object of much attention from gods, giants, and dwarves alike.
Ymir is the most famous progenitor of the giants. As the ancestor of all giants, it is said that the earth, the sea, the forests, the mountains, the sky, and the clouds were all created from his corpse. Loki, though of giant descent, is bound to Odin by blood or as a sworn brother; he resides in Asgard but gradually reveals his giant-like nature, and in the myths, he is often portrayed as a figure who brings chaos and evil to the world.
Giants appear as enemies of the gods and, at times, as partners in interaction and marriage. Examples include Bestla, the mother of Odin’s three sons, who was a female giant; Frey’s marriage to the giantess Gerd; and female giants like Gríðr, who aided Thor. On the other hand, giants are also beings who constantly challenge the gods, making the tension between the gods and the giants a central theme that runs throughout the entire mythology.
Notable giants include Vafthrudnir, who engaged in an intellectual duel with Odin; Utgard-Loki, who outwitted Thor with magic; and figures like Trümm, Geirød, and Hrungnir, who met their deaths while challenging Thor. These confrontations and conflicts ultimately lead to Ragnarök, the final battle of the world, in which the giants attack the gods, causing the deaths of many gods and the world’s descent into destruction.
Dwarves are said to have been created from the maggots that emerged as Ymir’s corpse decayed. They are depicted as artisans who live in rock crevices or underground caves and possess the skills to extract and work the minerals and metals found beneath the earth. The tradition in European folklore of portraying dwarves as skilled craftsmen who work with gold and metals originates from this.
The most famous dwarf is Andvari, whose treasure and ring become the cause of greed, conflict, and destruction. This story has been reimagined in Wagner’s opera ‘The Ring of the Nibelung’, J. R. R. Tolkien’s works, and their film adaptations, exerting a significant influence on modern culture.
In modern popular culture, many iconic characters—such as wizards, dwarves, elves, trolls, heroes, wolves, and the World Tree—derive directly or through variations from Germanic mythology, illustrating its contemporary relevance and influence.
For more specific information on other characters and details in Germanic mythology, it would be helpful to consult specialized books or the summary section of this blog post, in addition to the content covered here.
