In this blog post, I will examine the dual nature of utopian literature—its fantastical elements and its critique of reality—and reinterpret the meaning of its unattainability and the truth it embodies.
The Essence of Utopian Literature
Some people even regard daydreaming as a sin. If such imagination were nothing more than a preposterous delusion that leads to absurd consequences, that criticism would be valid. However, imagination is one of the abilities granted to humans and, along with reason, a crucial element constituting the human mind. Although the perspective of defining humans solely by reason has persisted for a long time, imagination—which stands on equal footing with reason—is also a fundamental ability that defines human existence.
Determining the origin of imagination is a complex issue, but the fact that it has served as a driving force for progress and development is undeniable. The greater the idea, the broader and more profound the horizon of imagination it encompasses; in some cases, such as Plato’s Forms, immense imagination or hypotheses hold significant intellectual influence. Furthermore, the very way in which humans have created God can be viewed as the product of a grand imagination.
The term “fantasy” used here should not be interpreted in its dictionary-defined, trivial sense. We must not dismiss the capacity for fantasy—and the earnest human aspirations it contains—as mere “unattainable, futile thoughts.” Though it may seem paradoxical at times, we must acknowledge the truth inherent in fantasy. The reason novels—even those dealing entirely with fantastical content—can delve into human truth is precisely because of the authenticity contained within that fantasy.
Generally, dissatisfaction with reality or aspirations that feel impossible to fulfill in reality serve as the cradle of fantasy. Fantasy essentially negates reality. At the core of this negation of reality lies a critical perspective toward reality. Therefore, the authenticity of fantasy can be seen as stemming directly from this critique of reality.
Oscar Wilde lamented that a pragmatic realism devoid of fiction was depleting the human spirit, and it is noteworthy that he chose the term “fiction” rather than his usual term “ideal.” While the word “ideal” can sometimes sound abstract and trite, “fantasy” or “imagination” evokes a free and boundless realm and possesses the power to liberate human emotions.
Utopian literature is a literary genre that harnesses this truth of fantasy. The reason utopian literature is often referred to as “fantasy literature” is that it generally takes the form of romantic visions of the future. Utopian works present the ideal society that humans yearn for in the form of fantasy, essentially imagining a “society that cannot be realized.”
The question here is how to understand this “impossibility of realization.” The term “utopia” originates from the title of Thomas More’s work, and its etymology combines the Greek “u” (meaning “not”) and “topos” (meaning “place”), signifying “a land that exists nowhere.” Therefore, it refers to an ideal realm that does not exist in reality. On the surface, utopia appears to be something humans can never achieve.
However, we must distinguish between practical impossibility and theoretical impossibility. While a utopia may be difficult to realize in practice, it can certainly be conceived in theory. It is precisely this theoretical feasibility that constitutes the authenticity of utopia and serves as a standard for critiquing reality.
Imagination is a fundamental human capacity, and in the world of the imagination, one can break free from the various constraints of reality and enjoy infinite freedom. When imagination is applied to reality, two paths emerge: one is “escape” from reality, and the other is the “reform” of reality. The former can be called fantasy, and the latter, an ideal.
Fantasy constructs a perfect society solely within the mind, while setting reality aside. In this case, fantasy appears to be disconnected from reality. However, this escapist tendency is not entirely passive or complacent. At the very least, since fantasy—which seeks to escape reality—is rooted in a critique of reality, it can be understood not as passive avoidance but as an active attempt to transcend reality.
Our consciousness operates within the world of meaning in which we find ourselves. That world includes ourselves, others, and society, and it demands a shared meaning based on mutual understanding. If we succumb to social conventions and demands, we become permanently buried within that reality and lose our freedom. In this way, humans easily degenerate into mere cogs in the vast machinery of society.
In contrast, some seek to break free from this subordinate dependence on society and establish an entirely new society and a new self. Unlike efforts to restore freedom through gradual reform, this movement is an attempt to build a new world within the realm of consciousness by negating the existing system of meaning. The negation of reality becomes, in theory, the most rigorous form of social critique, and it is from this that true utopian idealism is born.
This is why revolution is often cited as the means to realize utopian ideals. The very characteristic of utopia is an attitude that demands a total and fundamental transformation of reality, rather than partial or moderate reforms. For this reason, many dismiss utopia as an “unrealizable fantasy.”
Ultimately, there is a perspective that holds that the realization of utopia is made possible not by partial reforms but by a fundamental transformation that innovates the world itself—that is, a world revolution. While a world revolution may seem realistically distant and impossible, perhaps the true human ideal lies precisely in that impossibility.
Humanity’s dream of a perfect society will never fade. Rather, as long as such fantasies endure, utopian thought retains its authenticity and exerts a profound influence on the history of social thought. Utopian imagination is also a driving force behind social progress.
The Literary History of Utopia
Utopian literature has existed in various forms since ancient times. Some view the depiction of an ideal realm in Homer’s ‘Odyssey’ as the starting point of utopian literature. However, from the perspective of “descriptions of an ideal state,” Plato’s ‘Republic’ can be regarded as the oldest example of utopian literature.
In ‘The Republic’, Plato presents a perfect society that holds justice as the highest virtue. In his ideal state, the four cardinal virtues—wisdom, temperance, courage, and justice—are realized, and a society based on the sharing of property is envisioned. Furthermore, in Plato’s ‘Timaeus’, he connects the origins of this ideal society to a mythical space of the past by describing it as having existed on the legendary island of Atlantis.
By combining his political philosophy with a longing for a previously existing utopia to seek a perfect society, Plato served as the pioneer of utopian thought. Although fragmentary accounts of utopian societies appeared in some travelogues and travel essays afterward, full-fledged utopian literature did not emerge prominently for quite some time.
The Historical Context and Revival of Utopian Literature
The work most commonly cited as the most prominent example of utopian literature since Plato is Thomas More’s ‘Utopia’.
Since More’s ‘Utopia’ was published in 1516—some 2,000 years after Plato’s ‘Republic’—utopian literature effectively experienced a long hiatus during that time.
Utopian literature tends to emerge during periods of heightened social, political, economic, and moral unrest. Just as Plato’s ‘The Republic’ emerged against the backdrop of unrest in Athens, utopian imagination manifests most strongly when dissatisfaction with reality intersects with hope for the future.
However, the two thousand years from Plato to More were commonly referred to as the Middle Ages, a period during which the Catholic Church exercised powerful authority over all aspects of thought and daily life in the name of salvation. Such an environment would not have provided fertile ground for the blossoming of a new form of utopian literature.
That said, the near absence of utopian literature in the Middle Ages cannot be explained solely by the Church’s absolute authority. We must not overlook the fact that people of the Middle Ages yearned for the most perfect utopia within themselves and firmly believed that this was none other than the Heaven promised by the Church.
The salvation of humanity proclaimed by the Church and the Heaven promised to the saved were, for many, the ultimate utopia. Medieval people lived with relatively peaceful and contented minds, grounded in genuine faith and an unshakable hope for Heaven; it is important to understand that it was difficult for new secular utopian literature to emerge from such people.
The rise of the Renaissance and humanism, along with the collapse of the medieval feudal order, reignited human anxiety. People no longer imagined only a utopia bestowed by God, like Heaven; instead, they began to dream of a utopia that could be created by human effort alone.
The 16th-century Renaissance was a golden age for utopian literature, and the quintessential work of this era is Thomas More’s ‘Utopia’. More’s work popularized the term “Utopia” and paved the way for the publication of hundreds of utopian novels in the centuries that followed.
“Utopia” went beyond being a mere literary achievement to exert a profound influence on social thought and is regarded as the precursor to modern utopian literature. From then on, a variety of utopian and dystopian narratives carried on this tradition, culminating in George Orwell’s “1984.”
The Life and Intellectual Development of Thomas More
Thomas More was born on February 6, 1478, on Milk Street in London, the second son of John More, a judge of the Court of Common Pleas. His father was a well-known figure in society but was not a member of the nobility.
At the age of twelve, More went to live with the family of John Morton, Archbishop of Canterbury and Lord Chancellor. The moral influence Morton exerted on him during his childhood was profound and left a lasting impact throughout More’s entire life. Morton, seeing great promise in More’s future, would often say, “This child will become a great man.”
At the age of 14, More entered Oxford on Morton’s recommendation. Although his time there lasted only two years, he was influenced by humanism, studied Latin and Greek diligently, and was introduced to intellectual life. He later enrolled at the “New Inn” to pursue a career in law, transferred to the “Lincoln’s Inn” in 1496, and was admitted to the bar in 1500.
Even while studying law, More did not abandon the new learning. Two years after entering Lincoln’s Inn, he met Erasmus, with whom he would maintain a lifelong friendship, and he avidly read the works of Pico, even translating some of them.
In the spring of 1504, More was elected to Parliament for the first time. There, he opposed the harsh taxes imposed by Henry VII, incurring the king’s wrath and ultimately being forced to resign from public office. In retaliation, Henry VII fined More’s father and had him imprisoned in the Tower of London until the fine was paid.
During his time away from public office, More led a simple and ascetic life among his close friends and even seriously considered becoming a monk. He devoted himself to reading and translating the works of Pico and others, and it appears he visited Paris and Louvain to study the university system.
Diplomacy, Writing, and Political Choices
When Henry VIII ascended the throne in 1509, More soon became the Chancellor of the Royal College of Law, and in September 1510, he was appointed Deputy Governor of London. In 1514, the engagement between Charles, the Archduke of Austria, and Mary, Henry VIII’s sister, became a diplomatically sensitive issue.
Trade issues between England—whose primary export was wool—and the Netherlands, the center of the Flemish wool industry, had a significant impact on relations between the two countries. Amid heightened diplomatic tensions, Henry VIII sought to exert pressure by banning wool exports to the Netherlands, and wool merchants requested that More be included in the diplomatic mission as their representative.
More, who joined the diplomatic mission to handle commercial matters, conceived and wrote major portions of the second book of ‘Utopia’ while in Antwerp. Returning home at the end of the year after a stay abroad of about seven months, he was rewarded with a position by Henry VIII for successfully concluding the trade negotiations.
Although Erasmus described More as having been “dragged into the court,” More rose through the ranks at court and became Lord Chancellor in October 1529. However, there were complex tensions within his ideology and political actions.
While the religious views expressed in ‘Utopia’ were relatively tolerant and liberal, More, as a practical politician, strongly opposed the Reformation. Although the spirit of the Reformation was strong among the English intellectual class at the time, Henry VIII’s court officially opposed the Reformation, and More sternly supported that position.
Although More did not personally direct the persecution and massacre of Protestants, he condoned the opposition to the Reformation. At first glance, it may be difficult to understand why More—who is regarded as a man of liberal thought—took such a hardline stance against the Reformation, but he believed that the Reformation posed a risk of destroying Europe’s long-standing Christian civilization and the society built upon its foundations.
Therefore, he had no intention of applying the religious freedom or communal systems he advocated in ‘Utopia’ to actual politics. This attitude reveals the gap between his ideas and political reality.
After his accession to the throne, Henry VIII found himself with no heir other than Princess Mary following his marriage to Catherine; consequently, in 1532, he divorced Catherine and married Anne. When the Pope declared this marriage unlawful and exerted pressure, Henry VIII broke with the Roman Catholic Church and proclaimed himself head of the Church of England.
More, a staunch defender of Catholicism, resigned as Lord Chancellor in 1532 and did not attend Queen Anne’s coronation the following year. The Act of Succession, passed by Parliament in 1534, designated Mary as illegitimate and required approval of the king’s decision; More refused to take the oath affirming this.
His reason for refusing the oath was simple. Recognizing Mary as illegitimate would have meant acknowledging that the marriage to Catherine was unlawful, which in turn would have amounted to a denial of the Pope’s authority. This refusal became More’s final act of political and religious resistance.
More’s Final Days
He was immediately imprisoned in the Tower of London and sentenced to death for treason in 1535.
The scene of his execution was deeply moving. Weakened by his long imprisonment, More was escorted to the vicinity of London Bridge with the help of his friend Kingston, the governor of the Tower of London. Kingston shed tears as he handed More over to the escort, and upon seeing this, More comforted him, saying, “Please pray for me. I will pray for you as well. And let us meet again in heaven and live happily.”
Even as his son and daughter clung to him, weeping bitterly, More calmly kissed them goodbye and comforted them instead.
Upon receiving the notice of his execution, he said, “I am grateful that it is solely by Your Majesty’s grace that I am allowed to depart this gloomy world so early. I will pray for Your Majesty both in this life and in the next.”
Finally, he joked with the executioner and calmly met his end. “Cheer up. There’s no need to hesitate in carrying out your duty. My neck is very short, so be careful when you cut it.” This took place on July 6, 1535.
The Ideas of ‘Utopia’
‘Utopia’ was written against the backdrop of the early Industrial Revolution in England. It is a well-known fact that the introduction of new production methods plunged British society into great turmoil, resulting in a surge of unemployment and social unrest. Rural areas, in particular, were devastated by the Enclosure System, as farmland was converted into pastures and many farmers were forced into a life of vagrancy.
Book I of ‘Utopia’ contains a sharp critique of these social realities in England. Raphael’s justification for refusing to enter public service is particularly intriguing. He argues that, despite the advice of More and Giles, he cannot enter public service because society has become so corrupt that there is no room for his knowledge or experience to be accepted in the real world. Raphael’s logic—that there is no way to realize the ideal society seen in Utopia within a society that has already become fossilized—offers us many insights when compared to today’s reality, where politics has become a profession and high-level public office has degenerated into a technical position where those in power evade responsibility.
However, the core of ‘Utopia’ lies in Book II. As the original title suggests, this volume contains a “useful and entertaining account of the best state of social life and of a new island called Utopia,” and it is here that More’s instructive and entertaining content is concentrated.
The Utopia described by Raphael is “a country where everything runs smoothly under a very small number of laws, where virtue is respected, and where everyone possesses everything in abundance.” Here, education is widespread, politics are conducted democratically, freedom of religion is guaranteed, and the citizens possess sound moral character.
Particular points of interest in Book II include the system of communal ownership, the procedures for electing rulers and the form of government, issues of faith and morality, and perspectives on war. The ruler of Utopia is elected and serves for life, provided he does not conspire to commit treason. Since excessive self-promotion is prohibited during elections, candidates who engage in exaggerated boasting permanently lose their eligibility to run. Consequently, the ruler is elected based on strict judgment by the moral conscience of the people and, once elected, enjoys their absolute trust.
While this system may seem outdated at first glance, it also sharply satirizes the blind spots inherent in formal modern democratic elections.
Regarding religion, while there are many similarities with natural religion, the widest possible freedom of religion is recognized. The rationale is that freedom of religion is a practical and humane means of avoiding the distortion or corruption of human nature and maintaining sound social morality.
It is reasonable to view the essence of Utopia as lying in moral philosophy. Since ‘Utopia’ is premised on an ideal and moral humanity devoid of selfish elements, it inevitably becomes a treatise on ethics. The moral philosophy Moore develops bears the influence of ancient thinkers—particularly the hedonism of Epicurus and the ethics of the Stoics—while at its core lies Moore’s Christian perspective.
The way these ideas are applied to real society is fascinating. The stance—which, like the Stoics, respects reason and nature while rejecting asceticism and viewing wholesome pleasure as a virtue—creates both tension and intrigue.
In particular, the system of communal ownership is almost fantastical. An economy without money, where everything is publicly owned, production is focused solely on essentials to eliminate unnecessary labor, and leisure time for meaningful human activities is maximized—this is a world everyone has imagined at least once. For this reason, while it may lack realism, it is rich in imagination.
However, it is difficult to view the communal system in ‘Utopia’ as identical to modern communism. Although there are superficial similarities, such as the abolition of private property and communal distribution, ‘Utopia’ rejects materialism and demands a thorough religious and moral foundation. Therefore, it is fundamentally different from modern communism in terms of both motivation and method.
In any case, it is clear that ‘Utopia’ was a sharp critique and satire of the political and economic systems of England and Europe at the time. That critique and satire still resonate vividly today.
It is not uncommon for readers of “Utopia” to find themselves suddenly reflecting on their own lives. This is because More’s utopian ideals are so intense and refreshing. Through this work, we should strive to internalize not only its specific content but also the ideals it embodies.
