In this blog post, we’ll examine how Orwell’s experiences in Burma and Spain led to ‘Animal Farm’ and his political writing, focusing on allegory and the publication process.

George Orwell and His Literary Standing

British novelist George Orwell is widely known for ‘Animal Farm’ and ‘1984’, both of which have long been regarded as classics. ‘Animal Farm’, in particular, has secured a broad readership in Korea, having been designated as required reading for teenagers and frequently cited as a study guide for essay exams. Meanwhile, although interest in Orwell briefly waned as the historical context surrounding ‘1984’ receded, his literary stature regained attention in the 2000s as his works and ideas underwent active reevaluation.
Until then, Orwell had often been understood in a narrow, one-dimensional way—as a writer who promoted anti-communist ideology during the Cold War, a fable-teller who featured animals, or a prophet who foresaw the future—but a more accurate assessment is that he was a writer who fought his entire life against all forms of ideology and power structures that oppress humanity. He deserves to be reevaluated as a writer who detested totalitarianism and stood on the side of the underprivileged, striving to champion their voices.

Political Writing Amid the Age of Modernism

Although Orwell was active during the modernist era of the first half of the 20th century, unlike modernists who primarily focused on the human psyche, subjective reality, and issues such as alienation and loneliness, he emphasized the social and political mission of literature. As realism waned and modernism emerged in the late 19th century, literature shifted its focus from the representation of social reality to the exploration of the individual psyche; Orwell, however, deliberately distanced himself from that trend.
The four motivations for writing he outlined in his essay “Why I Write”—pure selfishness, aesthetic passion, historical impulse, and political purpose—clearly demonstrate that he regarded political purpose as the core of his writing. Orwell believed that, in an era plagued by war and political upheaval, it was a dereliction of duty for a writer to turn a blind eye to social reality, and he argued that exposing the injustices of the times was a writer’s vital responsibility.

Burma and Spain: A Political Worldview Shaped by Experience

Personal experiences played a decisive role in shaping Orwell’s path as a political novelist. For five years starting in 1922, he served as an imperial police officer in Burma, then a British colony, where he witnessed firsthand how colonial rulers oppressed the colonized people. A graduate of the prestigious Eton College who chose to go to the East instead of attending university, he deeply felt the futility of imperialism and a sense of guilt regarding his own role in Burma; he chose writing as one means of atonement, seeking to expose the contradictions of imperialism. His experiences during this period are reflected in essays such as “Shooting an Elephant” and “A Hanging,” as well as in the novel ‘Burmese Days’.
Another turning point was the Spanish Civil War, in which he fought as a volunteer from late 1936 to mid-1937. Orwell went to Spain to fight against fascism, harboring hope that democratic socialism could be realized. However, on the ground, he was deeply disappointed to witness how the Communists were obstructing the realization of the workers’ revolution and distorting the cause and the truth.
His firsthand experience with the reality of Stalinist power grabs and the violence of totalitarianism deepened his political skepticism, and this pessimistic perspective was later reflected in ‘Animal Farm’ and ‘1984’.

The Concept and Publication Process of ‘Animal Farm’

After returning from Spain, Orwell conceived a novel dealing with the potential for a socialist revolution and its distortion. At the time, World War II was underway, and the Soviet Union was regarded as a member of the Allied powers, so publishing a work that openly criticized Stalin was a politically sensitive matter. Orwell therefore decided to use allegory—specifically, an animal fable—to expose the corruption of power and the failure of revolution. The narrative, in which animals rebel against a dictatorship but eventually fall into corruption through internal power struggles, was the ideal way to convey this political message metaphorically.
He finally completed the story he had been conceiving, but encountered new obstacles during the publication process. In Western societies at war, it was difficult to voice aggressive criticism of the Soviet Union, and as a result, several publishers rejected the manuscript, citing political concerns. Orwell himself anticipated that publication would not go smoothly, noting that the work was not “politically expedient,” and he was indeed rejected by four publishers in the United Kingdom.
In summary, Orwell’s literature was shaped by personal experiences—such as a sense of guilt stemming from his time in imperialist settings and the disillusionment he felt in Spain—as well as the political upheavals of 20th-century Europe. These experiences led him to conclude that no work of art can be free from political bias, and that the very claim of art’s “apolitical” nature is itself a form of political stance. Ultimately, he should be regarded as a writer who practiced political writing that criticized society and power through literature.

Publication and Initial Reactions

‘Animal Farm’ was rejected by two publishers before it was finally published by Secker & Warburg in August 1945. Contrary to expectations, it caused a huge sensation immediately upon publication; in the five years following the first edition, 25,000 hardcover copies alone were sold, and when the American edition was released in 1946, approximately 590,000 copies were sold over the course of four years. Orwell, who had previously been regarded by the British literary world merely as a progressive writer with strong political leanings, thus rapidly rose to prominence as a best-selling and influential author.
The fact that this work is an allegorical fable is closely linked to the political realities of the time. In the 20th century, political allegory served as an effective means of indirectly criticizing reality amid an atmosphere of oppression and censorship; in particular, given the delicate political situation in Europe at the time, it was nearly impossible to openly condemn Soviet communism, so Orwell had no choice but to use allegory to expose the failure of the Russian Revolution.

Structure as Allegory and the Scope of the Work

The events and animals in ‘Animal Farm’ are all implied through highly symbolic techniques. Therefore, the animals in the novel are not merely characters who elicit laughter through comical behavior; they exist as historical members of social groups, and their actions embody significant historical events of the era.
This novel addresses political issues spanning a series of events in Russian history, from the 1917 Russian Revolution to the 1943 Tehran Conference. Every animal and event reflects real historical figures or their archetypes; the following examines which historical events or figures each element represents.
The Pigs: Symbolize the Bolshevik intellectuals who overthrew the vast Russian bureaucracy and led the revolution.
They serve as a collective symbol of the group that seized power after the revolution and established itself as the new elite.
Napoleon: After ousting Mr. Jones, he becomes the central figure in the Animal Republic, monopolizing power; he represents Stalin. He triumphs in his power struggle with Snowball, reigns as a dictator, and betrays the ideals of the revolution.
Snowball: Symbolizes Trotsky. Depicted as an outstanding orator with revolutionary aspirations, he is ultimately driven out by Napoleon, and his ideals remain unfulfilled. He is portrayed as the epitome of a true revolutionary.
Old Major: The character who introduces the fundamental theories and ideals of the revolution, representing Marx. He instills in the animals the revolutionary ideal of driving out humans and building an equal society before passing away.
Squealer: A political agitator who promotes the new society after the revolution and fabricates the regime’s legitimacy; he is one of the four pigs. As an opportunist, he occupies a high position within the regime and serves as the head of the propaganda apparatus.
Boxer: Represents the proletariat during the Russian Revolution. He represents the honest, zealous but uneducated worker and is portrayed as a being who is inevitably exploited under a dictatorship or totalitarian regime.
Benjamin: A cynic and skeptic who doubts the abilities of those around him and questions the facts themselves. Although he can read, he does not use this skill for any useful purpose, demonstrating that even a powerful intellectual is useless without convictions or ideals.
Clover: A maternal animal with a sound conscience, she complements Boxer’s simple goodness and strength. She shows great compassion and kindness, serving as a source of comfort and strength for the oppressed animals.
Molly: A capricious supporting character who represents the elite class. She disappears partway through the story, but in some ways, she exhibits traits similar to humans in how she exploits other animals. She stands in contrast to Clover.
The Dogs: They symbolize the secret police who carry out ruthless violence. Napoleon secretly brings these dogs in as puppies, trains them, and uses them to maintain his power. Ultimately, they are mobilized to drive Snowball out.
Sheep: They serve as a propaganda force that contributes to Napoleon’s seizure of power. They demonstrate how the masses are manipulated, and whenever dissent arises, they disrupt it with slogans like “Four legs good, two legs bad!”
Moses: Moses the raven represents the historical role of the church. In some ways, he is portrayed as a figure who sides with the rulers rather than the ruled.
Muriel: Muriel the goat is the only one among those attending Major’s meetings who can read but is unable to make sound judgments. She accepts whatever is written as fact and does not question the pigs even when they alter the Seven Commandments.
Jones: Represents Emperor Nicholas II of Russia. He is portrayed as the figure who sparked the revolution, just as Jones is depicted as the human who sparked the rebellion on the farm.
Pilkington: The owner of the neighboring Foxwood Farm, he symbolizes Winston Churchill of Britain. Together with Frederick, he sometimes helps Jones attack Animal Farm.
Frederick: The owner of Pinchfield Farm, he represents Adolf Hitler of Germany.
Manor Farm: Represents Russia under Nicholas II.
The Animals’ Rebellion: Symbolizes the October Revolution that took place in Russia in October 1917.
The Battle of the Cowshed: Reflects the civil war that followed the October Revolution. Those who sided with Jones in this battle allude to foreign powers attempting to drive out the Bolsheviks.
The Battle of the Windmills: Symbolizes Germany’s invasion of the Soviet Union in 1941.
The Hens’ Rebellion: An event reminiscent of the Kronstadt Uprising of 1921, representing the revolt in which some soldiers and civilians rose up, chanting “Soviets without Bolsheviks.”
The Construction of the Windmills: Represents the First Five-Year Plan, launched in 1928, which called for rapid industrialization and the collectivization of agriculture.
The Animals’ False Confessions and Executions: This refers to Stalin’s Great Purge between 1936 and 1938.
The Party Scene with Pigs and Humans: This symbolizes the Tehran Conference, where Roosevelt, Churchill, and Stalin met in Tehran, Iran, in November 1943.

The Ideals and Distortions of Revolution—Orwell’s Message

Was the Russian Revolution a success or a failure? How far does the human desire for power extend? Through ‘Animal Farm’, Orwell questions whether the ideals of revolution are a viable philosophy by linking them to the human desire for power, and he illustrates the answer through the process of historical degeneration depicted in the novel.
Major’s speech can be read as a parody of Marx and Engels’ ‘Communist Manifesto’. If “Workers of the world, unite!” is Marx’s slogan, then passages in the novel such as “Let’s drive out the humans. Then the fruits of our labor will all be ours” and “All humans are enemies. And all animals are comrades” are reinterpretations of Marxist slogans.
Nevertheless, the emergence of an elite class from the very beginning of the revolution carried the potential for failure. As a specific elite centered on the pigs gradually formed, the ideal of an egalitarian society began to degenerate. The fact that Napoleon secretly raised dogs to maintain his power, and scenes where the pigs learn to read and walk on two legs like humans, are presented as harbingers of the lust for power and corruption.
Ultimately, while the animals’ rebellion initially appeared to be a triumph for revolutionary ideals, the original ideals vanish due to the pigs’ gradual seizure of power and the ongoing distortion of the Seven Commandments. Through this process of corruption, Orwell sharply illustrates just how difficult it is to uphold revolutionary ideals and how the lust for power erodes original values.

Distortion of Language and Memory

In ‘Animal Farm’, the process by which the revolutionary ideals are corrupted is primarily depicted through the gradual alteration of language. The original Seven Commandments were principles defining the spirit of the revolution, but they are changed, one sentence at a time, in ways that are subtle yet decisive. For example, “No animal shall sleep in a bed” becomes “No animal shall sleep in a bed with sheets,” “No animal shall drink alcohol” becomes “No animal shall drink too much alcohol,” and “No animal shall kill another animal” becomes “No animal shall kill another animal without cause,” gradually losing their original strictness.
Eventually, all seven commandments disappear, leaving only a single sentence: “All animals are equal. But some animals are more equal than others.” The animals are unsure exactly how the previous commandments were originally worded. Each time, Squealer appears and lies, telling the crowd, “The seven commandments were always written that way,” thereby persuading them. Squealer’s systematic lies and the sheep’s demagoguery—forms of linguistic manipulation—cause the animals to completely lose sight of the truth of the past.
In this way, Orwell demonstrates that the erasure of past memories is a core tool of totalitarian rule, and that the means to achieve this is the distortion of language. When memories are erased, the past disappears, and only the present remains for the animals.

The Degeneration of the Revolution and Orwell’s Warning

The situation following the revolution is far removed from the socialist revolution “from below” that Marx had envisioned; rather, it has become a revolution “from above.” The core issue lies not simply in overthrowing oppressive power, but in how to combine that power with just ideals. However, in Animal Farm, this task fails due to the pigs’—led by Napoleon—thirst for power.
The clearest sign that the revolutionary ideal has vanished and degenerated into the pigs’ autocratic rule is that the pigs are mimicking the past behavior of the humans. In the scene where the pigs invite the human farm owners to laugh, sing, and coexist peacefully with them, the other animals can no longer distinguish between the pigs and the humans. This gradual transformation of the pigs into humans reveals Orwell’s disillusionment with the politics of his time, where a revolution that began with the Marxist ideal as a practical philosophy had degenerated into the autocratic rule of a single individual.
Nevertheless, this novel should not be viewed merely as anti-communist propaganda criticizing Soviet communism. Orwell himself yearned for a socialist revolution and hoped for the establishment of a democratic socialist state. When the Russian Revolution drifted toward totalitarianism—contrary to its original ideals—following Stalin’s rise to power, Orwell felt that his socialist outlook had turned to despair. He also fervently hoped to see democratic socialism realized in Spain.
The scene in which Clovers climbs the hill after Napoleon’s execution, shedding tears and lost in thought, symbolizes the shattering of that very hope. The future that Major had envisioned and agitated for—a society where all animals are equal and treated fairly—had become a reality stained by slaughter and terror. This scene demonstrates just how desperately Orwell longed for the classless, democratic socialist society he envisioned.
Orwell points out that revolutionary ideals are difficult to reconcile with power and can ultimately lead to the corruption of power and social decay. This novel not only tells the story of communists who seized power and became corrupt but also serves as a warning that anyone can change in that way when faced with power. The principle that “absolute power corrupts” explains the possibility that a revolution may fail, deviating from its original purpose.
Ultimately, Orwell argues that it is not so much that the ideal itself is flawed, but rather that a classless society is difficult to achieve due to the human desire for power—a natural instinct. History may be a record of old dictators being overthrown only for new ones to seize power, and ‘Animal Farm’ is a fable that warns against such repetition.