In this blog post, we’ll explore the spirit and significance of French classicism, focusing on Corneille’s masterpieces, ‘Le Cid’ and ‘Horace’.
You’ve probably heard the saying, “Read the classics.” What comes to mind when you hear that? Chances are, you’ll picture old, antiquated books. You probably interpret it to mean that you should read books that people have long considered excellent, rather than the bestsellers that are currently in vogue. Similarly, you’ve likely heard the question, “Do you like classical music?” You’ll immediately understand it to mean, “Do you like sophisticated music, as opposed to pop songs?” We call the refined music played on radio programs like “Classical Music Room” classical music.
That’s right. The term “classic” generally refers to works that have been recognized by people for a long time. It refers to works that do not fade away with passing trends but continue to offer lessons and be cherished by people at all times. We call works that deeply move people anytime and anywhere—rather than merely satisfying our emotions temporarily—classics. In that sense, the vitality of a true classic can be said to be very long-lasting.
However, the term “classic” originates from a 17th-century French literary movement. That movement is Classicism. In French, it is written as ‘Classicisme’ (Classicism). The reason classical music is also called “classic music” is that the French term ‘Classicisme’ contains the word “classic.”
The people of 17th-century France had tremendous pride. France was the first to establish the most powerful monarchy in Europe and could rightly be considered the center of Europe in many respects. Furthermore, a philosopher named Descartes emerged and laid the foundations of rationalism. Even if you don’t know Descartes’ name, you’ve likely heard his famous saying, “I think, therefore I am.” Rationalism can be understood as a philosophy that asserts human reason can serve as the standard for all things. It is a philosophy that believes the power of reason can uncover all truths in the world. Rationalists believed that a desirable world could be created through the power of human reason.
Classicism can be seen as the extension of that belief into artistic creation. French Classicists believed that there was a clear distinction between the ideal life people should lead and one they should not. They were convinced that a true life and a false life could be clearly distinguished. A true and ideal life is one in which a person overcomes all passions and temptations through the power of human will and reason. Classicists believed that only works depicting such an ideal and true life could move people. Furthermore, they believed that such an ideal human figure served as an eternal model and example that humanity should strive toward. They believed that such a figure could inspire people for all time. This is why works that retain their vitality over the long term and continue to move people came to be called “classics.”
In a sense, the French Classicists went a step further than Shakespeare. The protagonists in Shakespeare’s works are tormented figures. They sometimes succumb to human temptations, and at other times, they hesitate, unable to make a decision. In the works of the French Classicists, too, the protagonist is faced with temptation. They struggle with the choice between one path or another. However, in most cases—especially in Corneille’s works—the protagonist overcomes this conflict through sheer human will. Rather than simply portraying conflicted human beings as they are, the French Classicists strove to create an ideal human model. And they believed they could create such an ideal human model. They believed they could create values worth pursuing forever. The Classical era can be seen as the period when literature and art were at their most confident.
These days, we live in a world where questions like “What would an ideal world look like?” or “What is an ideal life?” are rarely asked.
It would be wonderful if reading the works of the French Classicists provided an opportunity for you to ask yourself questions about what a genuine life entails.
The three leading French Classicist writers are Corneille, Racine, and Molière. While all three are representative of Classicism, their literary worlds are quite distinct. Let’s begin by reading the works of Corneille, whose writing most closely aligns with the Classical ideal and who was most thoroughly imbued with the Classical spirit.
‘Le Cid’ is Corneille’s masterpiece. When it first premiered in early January 1637, it was so popular that chairs had to be brought onto the stage to accommodate the audience. Audience members took great pleasure in memorizing the play’s long soliloquies. It captivated people to such an extent that the phrase “as beautiful as ‘Le Cid’” became a popular saying. Its popularity spread throughout Europe, to the point where ‘Le Cid’ was translated into nearly every European language.
‘Le Cid’ is set in southern Spain in the 11th century. The title is the French rendering of the Spanish “El Cid,” and the play centers on the real-life figure Rodrigo Díaz de Vivar. “El” is the definite article, and “Cid” means “prince” in Arabic. He is a legendary national hero of Spain who achieved numerous feats of valor. Corneille used him as a model to distill the spirit of classicism into a single work. Simply put, it is a drama in which a character caught in a conflict between filial duty and love overcomes that crisis through the power of his will.
Rodrigo, the protagonist of the play, is a hero. Born into a distinguished family, he possesses outstanding qualities and has ample potential to become a hero. However, he becomes a true hero by overcoming the conflict that befalls him through sheer willpower. It is precisely his willpower that is crucial. Overcoming the crisis arising from the conflict between revenge against his father and love through sheer willpower—that is the central theme of ‘Le Cid’ and the ideal of Classicism. In nearly all of Corneille’s works, it is precisely this will to defend one’s honor that serves as the true protagonist. To emphasize the power of this will, Corneille heightens the conflicts in his plays to the utmost. He makes the protagonist wander in the midst of these conflicts, tearing his heart apart. Yet, in the end, through the power of his will, the protagonist secures both honor and love. Though the circumstances are tragic, the ending is happy. That is why ‘Le Cid’ brings a sense of relief to the audience. The reason ‘Le Cid’ gained such immense popularity is precisely because it resonated with the audience’s tastes, thoughts, and sensibilities.
In ‘Horace’, published in 1640, Corneille intensifies this conflict to the utmost. While ‘Le Cid’ centers on the conflict between avenging one’s father and love, ‘Horace’ centers on the conflict between patriotism and love.
‘Horace’ is set in the early days of Rome’s founding, around the 7th century BCE. Corneille based his play on the battle between the Horatii and the Curiatii, as described in Titus Livius’s ‘History of Rome’. “Horace” is the French rendering of “Horatius,” and “Curius” in the play is the French rendering of “Curiatius.” Meanwhile, Curias’ homeland, Alba, refers to Alba Longa. You may have heard the name Alba Longa before. It is the place where Romulus, the founder of Rome, was born—a location mentioned in Virgil’s ‘Aeneid’. In other words, the battle between Rome and Alba was a conflict waged among people of the same bloodline.
That is precisely why the conflict is bound to intensify. Originally a single people sharing the same bloodline, they were split into two cities and forced into civil war; consequently, it is inevitable that they would see their brothers-in-law, nephews, and friends on the enemy side. Even beloved lovers are forced apart. All those involved are inevitably caught up in this conflict. The characters in ‘Horace’ are all caught up in this conflict.
They are characters torn between the conflicts of love and duty, family and nation. Among these, love is the most powerful force.
Through the characters in ‘Horace’, Corneille vividly portrays heart-wrenching romantic emotions. He movingly expresses the sensitivity of women who prioritize love and happiness. He also fully demonstrates just how great the power of love is. At times, he even condemns heroic acts carried out in the name of love as barbaric. However, these are ultimately nothing more than personal passions. Such personal passions must bow before the greater duties of family honor and the salvation of the nation. This is because, while a hero’s glory is eternal, personal love and friendship are merely fleeting. Personal love and friendship, which are inevitably fleeting, weaken those duties. This is precisely the clear message that Corneille’s works convey to readers.
What do you think? Do you agree with Corneille’s view? Or, as Ciment in ‘Le Cid’ and Camille and Sabine in ‘Horace’ suggest, does such glory come only to those who are cold-hearted and cruel, having lost their humanity? One thing is certain: there is no single, unchanging correct answer. But there is another certainty. What about us today? Are we not seeking the meaning of life and happiness solely in personal achievement? Do we not live in a world where terms like “patriotism” and “love for one’s people” feel all too foreign? Don’t we need heroes like Roderic from ‘Le Cid’ or Horace from ‘Horace’? It is also certain that you must ask yourselves these questions alongside Corneille.
The characters in Corneille’s works are not people of today. Their struggles over love and honor seem utterly foreign to us. Yet situations where we must make choices of our own free will always arise. Moments when we must make a decision always come. In that sense, Corneille’s works are timeless classics. Read Corneille at such times. Read his works when you want to overcome conflict, when you must make a decision.
The word “honor” that appears in Corneille’s works is not a term unique to that era. It is a word that remains valid at all times. Honor is the standard by which you judge yourselves. That sense of restraint—the feeling that, no matter how tempting it may be, you simply cannot bring yourself to act—that is precisely what stems from honor. That honor is not bestowed by others. It is something you cultivate and uphold yourselves.
From his 1629 comedy ‘Mélite’ to his 1674 tragedy ‘Syrène’, Corneille engaged in passionate creative work for 45 years. He wrote a total of 33 plays. Although he demonstrated his skill across various genres—including comedy, tragedy, non-tragedy, and heroic comedy—his talent shone most brilliantly in his tragedies. For Corneille, human dignity depends on the choices one makes in the midst of conflict. To reiterate, the protagonists of his works possess the strength, will, and insight to fulfill their duties even in the worst of circumstances. While humans possess many virtues, for these heroes, willpower alone is the supreme virtue. This is why his tragedies are called “tragedies of will.”
He was elected a member of the Académie Française in 1647. However, after ‘Pertarite’ (1652) was a catastrophic failure, he returned to Paris and even went into seclusion in Rouen for a time. He later returned to the theater and wrote several plays, but by then Racine had already gained widespread popularity. He retired for the final time and enjoyed a peaceful life until his death in 1684 at the age of 76.
