In this blog post, I will summarize and explain how the name, development process, script structure, musical system, and casting system of Yuan Zaju—which took shape during the Yuan Dynasty—combined to lay the foundation for subsequent traditional Chinese theater.
Name and Formation
The works discussed in this article are translations of Zaju (雜劇) plays written during the Yuan Dynasty, which are part of classical Chinese drama. In the history of Chinese literature, when describing an era and its representative genre, it has been traditional to pair the era’s name with the genre—such as “Classical Chinese Prose, Tang Poetry, Song Prose, and Yuan Opera.” Here, the genre representing the Yuan Dynasty is precisely “Opera” (which includes Sanqu and Zaju).
Sanqu is a lyrical form characterized by rhythmic patterns that emerged with the influx of Northern music, and Zaju is a form that weaves these Sanqu pieces together into songs to unfold a narrative. Therefore, Zaju is the literary genre that represents the Yuan Dynasty, and the Yuan period is regarded as a pivotal era in the history of Zaju’s development.
Yuan Dynasty zaju, along with Nanxi (Southern Drama), is considered the first theatrical form in China to possess a certain scale and structured system. Even before the emergence of zaju, various theatrical traditions—such as song-and-dance dramas, farces, and ritualistic folk performances—existed among the royal court, the nobility, and the common people; the urban development and growing demand for entertainment during the Song Dynasty served as a catalyst for the professionalization and systematization of these traditions.
As early as the Song Dynasty, farces (Song zaju) featuring two to five actors, shadow plays, puppet shows, and the shuochang (narrative singing) format—which combines song and spoken word to unfold a story—had already emerged; in particular, the combination of shuochang and zhuoqu (musical compositions) directly contributed to the script structure of Yuan zaju. It can be argued that Yuan Zaju took its definitive form during the period when the Yuan Dynasty, established by the Mongols in the north, overthrew the Jin Dynasty, leading to a change in dynastic rule.
Structure of the Script
A single Yuan Zaju play generally consists of four sections (zhe), with each section corresponding to an act in Western theater. Depending on the work, a play may consist of five sections, or a supplementary scene called a “suezi” (楔子) may be inserted to fill gaps in the plot. The suezi can be inserted anywhere between sections.
The script consists of three elements: sung dialogue (chang), spoken dialogue (bai), and stage directions (guo) that instruct actors’ movements and stage effects. Chang (sung dialogue) consists of lyrics set to the melodies of san-gok (folk songs) popular at the time; each musical form (gukpye) has a fixed number of lines, characters, and rhyme positions. A single stanza is composed of a set of songs (to-gok) that share the same rhyme.
Baek (spoken dialogue) and bin-baek are divided into dae-baek (ordinary spoken dialogue) and un-baek (rhymed spoken dialogue). A characteristic feature is the “entrance poem” and “exit poem,” in which two or four-line verses are recited upon entering and exiting the stage; characters take the stage to directly explain their status and circumstances to the audience before entering the plot. “Gwa” served as a marker directing the actors’ movements; given the performance format of the time, which featured almost no protruding stages or set pieces, these were symbolic and formalized movement instructions.
Musical System
A review of the ‘Thirty Types of Yuan Zaju’, the oldest extant edition, reveals that lyrics were relatively more emphasized than spoken dialogue. As evidenced by the Chinese custom of describing traditional theater as something to be “listened to,” it is a musical drama centered on musical elements. The fact that traditional forms such as Peking Opera and Kunqu are translated into English as “opera” stems from this same context.
Yuan Zaju utilized Beiqu (Northern Songs), and while Tang-dynasty Beiqu comprised 17 gongtiao (palace modes), Yuan Zaju primarily used 9 of them. Of the approximately 380 songs (xiaoling) belonging to each gongdiao, about 250 were utilized in Yuan Zaju. Suites or medleys composed of multiple songs were called “tugu,” and it was common practice to arrange one tugu per act.
In principle, songs belonging to the same gongdiao were used within a single act, which typically included about 10 songs. Furthermore, as a rule, only one “role type” (jiao se) per actor sings; this means that the singing is assigned to a specific role type rather than to the individual actor.
Role System
A unique feature of traditional Chinese theater is the concept of “role types” (jiao se or jiao se) that distinguishes actors from their characters. A role type is a specific theatrical role that an actor specializes in, and actors typically perform a specific role type throughout their careers. For example, “Jeongdan” (正旦) is a type of female lead role, and “Jeongmal” (正末) is a type of male lead role.
Roles are classified into categories such as “Mal” (末), “Dan” (旦), and “Jeong” (淨); more specifically, they include Jeongmal, Bumal, Chungmal, Nomal, and Somal; Jeongdan, Hwadan, Nodan, and Sodan; and Jeong, Bujeong, and Oejeong. This specialization served as a mechanism to emphasize the actors’ expertise and ensure the continuity of the theater.
The meaning of the previously mentioned rule that “only one person sings” refers not to “a single actor” but to “a single character type.” For example, in some plays, the character singing changes with each act, but since they all belong to the same character type (e.g., Jeong-mal), this does not violate the rule. Plays in which the male role, Jeol-mul, sings are called “Malbon” (末本), while those in which the female role, Jeong-dan, sings are called “Danbon” (旦本).
Playwrights and Major Works
The golden age of Yuan Zheju lasted for about 100 years, roughly from the early 13th century (the late Jin Dynasty and Southern Song Dynasty) until the fall of the Yuan Dynasty and the founding of the Ming Dynasty. The reasons for the great popularity of zaju during this period include the rapid growth of urban culture and demand for entertainment, as well as the formation of a relatively large and diverse group of playwrights. In particular, the influx of some literati who had been marginalized by the imperial examination system led to the creation of a professional and talented pool of playwrights.
During the early period of Yuan zaju, outstanding playwrights such as Guan Hanqing, Wang Shifu, Bai Pu, and Ma Zhiyuan were active; however, as the cultural center shifted southward toward the later period, the artistic quality and influence of the works declined relatively. Traditionally, the playwrights of the early period are regarded as having achieved greater artistic success.
Works have been classified by content in various ways and can be categorized into diverse genres such as historical plays, social plays, family plays, romance plays, satirical plays, gratitude plays, Taoist and immortals plays, and supernatural plays. There are also genre-specific subcategories, such as works that borrow episodes from existing epics like ‘Romance of the Three Kingdoms’, ‘Water Margin’, and ‘Journey to the West’, as well as ‘Bao Gong plays’ (包公戲), which depict court trials.
Significance and Influence
Yuan Zaju was a representative literary form of the Yuan Dynasty; it served as the origin of traditional Chinese theater and played a crucial bridging role in transmitting themes and motifs to later novels and plays. Reflecting the shifting social values and worldviews that emerged following the transitional period between the Tang and Song dynasties, it sparked a literary shift centered on novels and plays.
The form and principles of Yuan zaju became the model for all subsequent forms of traditional Chinese theater, and many narrative themes were passed down and adapted through Yuan zaju, eventually finding their way into later novels and plays. In particular, zaju plays related to ‘Romance of the Three Kingdoms’, ‘Water Margin’, and ‘Journey to the West’ provide important clues for tracing the earlier stages and creative trajectories of these epics.
Selection, Translation, Reading, and Appreciation
The works included in this article (or this book) reflect an effort to select a balanced array of high-quality and engaging pieces, taking into account existing classifications and the prominence of authors and works. However, due to space limitations, many works had to be regrettably excluded.
The included works are broadly divided into four categories. First, romantic dramas: love between humans and divine beings, love between emperors and their consorts, and love between scholars and courtesans. Second, social dramas: dealing with unjust sacrifices, rescues from domestic violence, detective stories, and punishment of corrupt authorities. Third, historical dramas: stories related to the ‘Romance of the Three Kingdoms’ and tragedies related to the ‘Spring and Autumn’ and ‘Warring States’ periods. Fourth, religious dramas: works embodying Taoist doctrines or the concepts of reincarnation and karma.
To cite a few representative works, “The Sound of Rain Falling on the Paulownia Tree” depicts the love between Emperor Xuanzong of the Tang Dynasty and Yang Guifei, beautifully showcasing the lyrical beauty of Bai Bai’s verses, while “Dou’a’s Injustice Shakes Heaven and Earth” is a thoroughly tragic piece. “A Contest of Wits Across the River” is a highly polished work that weaves the “beauty trap” story from ‘Romance of the Three Kingdoms’ into a strategic showdown between Zhuge Liang and Zhou Yu. “The Great Revenge of the Orphan of the Zhao Clan” is a quintessential tragedy brimming with pathos that has even been introduced to and adapted in Europe.
In addition, Yuan drama is highly diverse in both genre and subject matter, including the “Bao Gong Xi Liu” series—featuring Bao Zheng as he punishes corrupt authorities—Taoist immortality plays, and works showcasing the vocal art form known as “Hwarang-a.” These works encompass nearly every social class and occupation of the time, concretely recreating reality and, at times, subverting existing values and social order.
Practical Decisions Regarding Translation and Editing
Although the translation was carried out through careful collective deliberation, the authors acknowledge that there were limitations in fully rendering the complex original text and accept any criticism from readers. Notations of play titles found in the original text and narrative techniques such as “Zhenliang says” were slightly adjusted for the reader’s convenience, and a comparison table of characters and play titles was placed at the beginning of the book to minimize confusion.
Furthermore, while the original work indicated the musical mode before the first song of each section, this edition has been edited to specify the mode after each section’s title to aid the reader’s understanding. Since numerous Korean translations of ‘Wonjapgeuk’ have been published prior to this work, interested readers may find it helpful to consult other translations as well.
Conclusion — Key Points for Appreciating Yuan Zaju
Yuan Zaju is a musical drama that skillfully combines song and spoken dialogue to maximize the function of each. The songs serve as lyric poetry, while the spoken dialogue and verse add textual richness; the actors’ performances feature formalized movements that stimulate the imagination and a theatricality that leaves room for interpretation. Audiences experience the work by alternating between immersion and detachment.
Through this article, the translator hopes to inspire readers to explore the world of Yuan Opera and develop an interest in traditional Chinese theater. Yuan Opera offers rich material for exploration from various perspectives, including its realism that reflects the times, its fresh perspectives on women and the marginalized, and its enduring influence on later literature and theater.
